Laboratory and non-laboratory-based risk prevention models for secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease : the LIPID study

Aims : The aims of this study were to examine whether risk prediction models for recurrent cardiovascular disease (CVD) events have prognostic value, and to particularly examine the performance of those models based on non-laboratory data. We also aimed to construct a risk chart based on the risk factors that showed the strongest relationship with CVD.

Methods and results : Cox proportional hazards models were used to calculate a risk score for each recurrent event in a CVD patient who was enrolled in a very large randomized controlled clinical trial. Patients were then classified into groups according to quintiles of their risk score. These risk models were validated by calibration and discrimination analyses based on data from patients recruited in New Zealand for the same study. Non-laboratory-based risk factors, such as age, sex, body mass index, smoking status, angina grade, history of myocardial infarction, revascularization, stroke, diabetes or hypertension and treatment with pravastatin, were found to be significantly associated with the risk of developing a recurrent CVD event. Patients who were classified into the medium and high-risk groups had two-fold and four-fold the risk of developing a CVD event compared with those in the low-risk group, respectively. The risk prediction models also fitted New Zealand data well after recalibration.

Conclusion : A simpler non-laboratory-based risk prediction model performed equally as well as the more comprehensive laboratory-based risk prediction models. The risk chart based on the further simplified Score Model may provide a useful tool for clinical cardiologists to assess an individual patient's risk for recurrent CVD events.

A model of cause-related marketing for profit-driven and non-profit organizations

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe a model of cause-related marketing (CRM) for both profit-driven (PD) and non-profit (NP) organizations.
Design/methodology/approach – The model consists of two parallel internal and external organizational processes – one representing the process of a NP organization and the other a PD organization. They are interlinked as the outcome of a CRM-partnership is dependent upon their mutual efforts.
Findings – The authors argue that it is essential to remember that a CRM-partnership is a challenge and risk for both the PD and NP organizations that may harm their reputation and position in the marketplace and/or society. CRM has benefits as well as downsides that should not be underestimated nor neglected.
Research limitations/implications – Will the involvement of the PD or NP organizations in the resultant partnership be perceived as commercialism, altruism or a combination of both, in the marketplace and society? A focus on both processes opens up opportunities for further research.
Practical implications – A contribution is that the CRM-model may be used as a guide for both PD and NP organizations in order to reveal whether a CRM-partnership is appropriate for them with a potential partner or not. It may also indicate whether the motives are based upon commercial reasons or altruistic reasons or a combination of both.
Originality/value – The model enables these organizations to think through the process prior to engaging in CRM.

Climate change and non-Indigenous belonging in postcolonial Australia

The constitution of climate change as an ‘emergency’ invites an appeal to sovereign
power that is troubling in the context of Australia’s colonial history. Climate change is
an unsettling and dispossessing force that, while unprecedented in many ways, can be situated among a series of environmental and social crises that have shaped a discourse of anxious or insecure non-Indigenous belonging in this country. This discourse seeks to render non-Indigenous Australian place as secure and absolute, and understands environmental change as a threat to this goal. This threat appeals to an emergency framing, and in turn to a reassertion, in line with the insights of Agamben, of an exclusive sovereignty that rehearses the foundational dispossessions of colonization. At the same time, climate change is initiating new ways of conceptualizing human relations with place that challenge the value of sovereign status. It enacts realities that refuse a singular emergency and instead generate community from a reorientation of places, times and more-than-human relations. Thought in this way as a creative force that is shaping communities and environments, climate change becomes a source of critical insight for the possibilities of a decolonized future.

Shaping pathways to gambling consumption? An analysis of the promotion of gambling and non-gambling activities from gambling venues

Background: In Australia, venues which provide gambling activities also provide activities that are utilised by families and children. However, there has been limited theoretical or empirical discussion about whether engagement with non-gambling activities may play a role in shaping pathways to current or future engagement in gambling within these environments. We examined marketing tactics for non-gambling and gambling activities in Clubs. Using this data, we propose a conceptual model to test the role of non-gambling activities within gambling environments in shaping gambling attitudes and consumption intentions.

Methods: This study used a mixed method interpretive content analysis to review the marketing activities on the websites of a sample of 65 registered Clubs in New South Wales, Australia. We identified the extent and nature of techniques used to market gambling and non-gambling activities, particularly non-gambling activities directed towards families and children.

Results: Clubs use various marketing tactics to appeal to families and encourage parents to bring their children into venues. We hypothesise that marketing aimed at bringing children and families into gambling environments may play a role in shaping children’s and adults perceptions of these environments and may be influential in the development of a pathway that increases the likelihood that children will continue to visit these environments as adults, and subsequently the extent to which they engage in gambling later in life.

Conclusions: Future research should explore how the presence of family-friendly activities in Clubs and other venues with gambling activities may play a role in shaping future gambling attitudes and behaviours.

Perspectives on social impact measurement and non-profit organisations

Purpose– Acknowledgement of the social impact created by organisations has become an increasingly frequent discussion among practitioners. The importance of such value creation cannot be understated, yet in an increasingly competitive funding environment, the need to articulate “true” value is paramount. The purpose of this paper is to examine how Australian and US managers of non-profit organisations (NPOs) and foundations view the measurement of the social impact of NPOs.Design/methodology/approach– The paper includes 19 in-depth interviews of non-profit professionals in the USA and Australia. Respondents included non-profit managers, foundation managers and consultants in both countries.Findings– The in-depth interviews found that in both countries respondents generally agreed that objective measures of impact are desirable, but recognised the difficulties in developing objective assessment frameworks enabling comparisons across the non-profit sector. These difficulties, as well as the implications for developing assessments of social value for NPOs, are discussed. This paper demonstrates that there is an opportunity to reposition reporting expectations. The NPO sector can pool together and build on each other’s strengths and market their outcomes as a collective entity. A sector-wide approach provides potential for much needed within-sector mentoring and will showcase the rich and varied outcomes generated by NPOs.Originality/value– This research compares viewpoints in two Western countries, thus offering at least an exploratory examination of social impact assessment from an international perspective. Additionally, this research shows commonalities in terms of what is valued and what is most difficult for non-profits when determining social impact.

A proposed approach to monitor private-sector policies and practices related to food environments, obesity and non-communicable disease prevention

Private-sector organizations play a critical role in shaping the food environments of individuals and populations. However, there is currently very limited independent monitoring of private-sector actions related to food environments. This paper reviews previous efforts to monitor the private sector in this area, and outlines a proposed approach to monitor private-sector policies and practices related to food environments, and their influence on obesity and non-communicable disease (NCD) prevention. A step-wise approach to data collection is recommended, in which the first (‘minimal’) step is the collation of publicly available food and nutrition-related policies of selected private-sector organizations. The second (‘expanded’) step assesses the nutritional composition of each organization's products, their promotions to children, their labelling practices, and the accessibility, availability and affordability of their products. The third (‘optimal’) step includes data on other commercial activities that may influence food environments, such as political lobbying and corporate philanthropy. The proposed approach will be further developed and piloted in countries of varying size and income levels. There is potential for this approach to enable national and international benchmarking of private-sector policies and practices, and to inform efforts to hold the private sector to account for their role in obesity and NCD prevention.

Monitoring food and non-alcoholic beverage promotions to children

Food and non-alcoholic beverage marketing is recognized as an important factor influencing food choices related to non-communicable diseases. The monitoring of populations' exposure to food and non-alcoholic beverage promotions, and the content of these promotions, is necessary to generate evidence to understand the extent of the problem, and to determine appropriate and effective policy responses. A review of studies measuring the nature and extent of exposure to food promotions was conducted to identify approaches to monitoring food promotions via dominant media platforms. A step-wise approach, comprising ‘minimal’, ‘expanded’ and ‘optimal’ monitoring activities, was designed. This approach can be used to assess the frequency and level of exposure of population groups (especially children) to food promotions, the persuasive power of techniques used in promotional communications (power of promotions) and the nutritional composition of promoted food products. Detailed procedures for data sampling, data collection and data analysis for a range of media types are presented, as well as quantifiable measurement indicators for assessing exposure to and power of food and non-alcoholic beverage promotions. The proposed framework supports the development of a consistent system for monitoring food and non-alcoholic beverage promotions for comparison between countries and over time.

Shedder status— An analysis of self and non-self DNA in multiple handprints deposited by the same individuals over time

There are several studies that suggest that different people deposit different quantities of their own DNA on items they touch, i.e. some are good shedders and others are bad shedders. It is of interest to determine if individuals deposit consistent quantities of their own DNA, no matter the occasion, as well as the degree of variability among individuals. To investigate this, participants were tested for their ability to deposit DNA by placing right and left handprints on separate DNA-free glass plates at three set times during the day (morning, midday and afternoon) on four different days spaced over several weeks. Information regarding recent activities performed by the individual was recorded, along with information on gender, hand dominance and hand size. A total of 240 handprint deposits were collected from 10 individuals and analyzed for differences in DNA quantity and the type of the DNA profile obtained at different times of the day, on different days, between the two hands of the same individual, and between different individuals. Furthermore, the correlation between the deposit quantity and the ratio of self to non-self DNA in the mixed deposits was analyzed to determine if the amount of non-self DNA has an effect on overall DNA quantities obtained. In general, this study has shown that while there is substantial variation in the quantities deposited by individuals on different occasions, some clear trends were evident with some individuals consistently depositing significantly more or less DNA than others. Non-self DNA was usually deposited along with self DNA and, in most instances, was the minor component. Incidents where the non-self portion was the major component were very rare and, when observed, were associated with a poor depositor/shedder. Forensic DNA scientists need to consider the range and variability of DNA a person deposits when touching an object, the likelihood of non-self DNA being co-deposited onto the handled object of interest and the factors that may affect the relative quantity of this component within the deposit.

Understanding criminal behaviour: identifying psychological differences between domestically violent offenders and non-offenders

Numerous theories have been formulated in an attempt to explain the psychological differences between violent offenders and non-offenders. Constructs that have emerged as salient in such scholarship include anger expression, social problem solving, locus of control, attitudes toward women, impulsivity and temper. Although a considerable amount of sound research has been conducted into 'violent offending' per se, in general terms, research into family and domestic violence is yet to be as methodologically and theoretically rigorous. In an attempt to link these areas of work, and to identify the risk factors (or 'criminogenic needs') of specific sub-groups of male offenders, this research compared: (I) property offenders, (2) those who had been· 'violent against strangers', (3) those who had been 'violent against intimates' and (4) non-offenders. In an effort to address one of the shortcomings of prior research, potentially confounding variables such as age, education level cultural identity, and socio-economic status were controlled for in an effort to arrive at more meaningful representations of each offender group's specific psychological deficits and abundances. A number of differences were highlighted between the groups, but few of these remained after demographic
covariates were controlled for. This paper details the nature of these differences, while also proposing that future studies adopt a similar methodology.

Validity and reliability of a physical activity recall instrument among overweight and non-overweight men and women

This study examined the validity and reliability of survey items measuring one-week recall of physical activity (PA) and examined differences by weight status. A sub-aim of the study was to objectively assess the intensity of activity that most closely matches self-report. A questionnaire was administered to adults twice, three days apart. It was again administered after subjects wore a MTI/CSA accelerometer for seven days (n = 118). Several metabolic equivalent (MET) thresholds were applied to the accelerometer data. Agreement between test and re- test estimates of sufficient physical activity for health benefits (150 min/week) was high (% agreement > 90%). Correlations (rho) between total reported PA (mins/day) and accelerometer data were 0.29 (p < 0.05) among men and 0.25 (p < 0.05) among women. Among men, self- reported duration of moderate PA (3-5.9 METS) and accelerometer data were significantly correlated (rho = 0.40, p < 0.01), with no differences by weight status. Among women, a significant relationship was found only for those who were not overweight (rho = 0.52, p < 0.001). A significant correlation between self-reported duration of vigorous PA (6+ METS) and accelerometer data was only found for overweight men (rho = 0.40, p < 0.05). When lower MET thresholds were applied to the accelerometer data, women's reported duration of moderate-intensity PA was most strongly correlated with moderate PA (accelerometer) defined as 2.0-5.9 METS (rho = 0.39, p < 0.01). The recall instrument provides a consistent measure of physical activity and validation coefficients were similar to those obtained for other physical activity recall questionnaires. However, the ability to measure PA by self-report may vary by weight status.

Sociocultural influences on body image concerns and body change strategies among Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Australian adolescent girls and boys

Sociocultural messages about the ideal body build have been studied predominantlyamong White adolescent girls. In the current study we examined the relationships between perceived sociocultural influences, body image concerns, and body change strategies among 47 (22 boys and 25 girls) Indigenous Australian adolescents. These relationships were compared to those from 47 non-Indigenous adolescents (predominantly from an Anglo-Saxon background), who were matched on gender, age, and school grade. Overall, the sociocultural influences were found to be associated with body image concerns and body change strategies among both cultural groups. The only exception was that the sociocultural influences were not associated with the Indigenous girls levels of body dissatisfaction or body image importance. These findings are discussed in relation to past studies of White and Black girls.

Introducing personal liability under the continuous disclosure regime : The essentials and non-essentials

Under the Federal Government's CLERP 9 legislation, expected at the time of writing to come into force in July 2004, personal liability will be introduced for the first time under the continuous disclosure regime. Individuals who are 'involved' in a failure to immediately disclose materially price sensitive information to the market will be subject to a civil penalty, in addition to the company being liable. According to the author, the introduction of personal liability per se is not contentious and indeed is a favourable change; what is questionable, however, is whether 'involvement' in a contravention is the appropriate test for imposing personal liability in relation to breaches of the continuous disclosure provisions. Based on the case law to date on the meaning of 'involved', there is particular uncertainty as to whether an individual would need to have actual knowledge that non-disclosed information is 'materially price sensitive' in order to satisfy the test of 'involved' in the context of continuous disclosure, or whether mere knowledge that the information has not been disclosed would be sufficient. This uncertainty arises due to the vague concept of 'essential matters' which the courts have developed as a test for what degree of knowledge a person needs to have in order to be 'involved'. The author argues that all the confusion as to what 'involved' means could be addressed by removing the word 'essential' from the dialogue, so that the test of 'involvement' would simply be based on whether the particular person had actual knowledge of each of the factual elements constituting the offence.

Commonwealth legislative power and "non punitive" detention: a constitutional roadmap

In 2004 The High Court handed down a number of decisions concerning detention imposed for purposes allegedly unrelated to punishment. This paper outlines the way the Federal Constitution restricts (and also facilitates) the imposition of "non punitive detention" by our governments. Such laws (as passed by the Federal Legislature) are constitutionally valid provided they can be characterised as falling within a legislative head of power under  section 51 off he Constitution. The power to detain for non punitive purposes can be reposed by the Legislature in the either the Executive or Judicial arms of government. Detention by the Executive is non punitive (and therefore does not offend the separation of powers) even though it involves a deprivation of liberty, provided it is imposed for “legitimate non punitive purposes”.  Legitimacy is in turn determined by reference to the section 51 heads of power. Detention for non punitive purposes by the judicial arm of government is constitutionally valid provided that (i) a “judicial process ” is adopted and (ii) (arguably) there is some link (albeit tenuous) with a previous finding of criminal guilt. The continuing existence of the “constitutional immunity ”from being detained by other than judicial order identified by the High Court in its 1992 decision in Lim v Minister for Immigration is called into question.

Blind equalization of non-irreducible and non-column-reduced channels driven by constant modulus signals

We address the blind equalization of finite-impulse-response (FIR), multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) channels excited by constant modulus (CM) signals. It is known that the algorithms based on the constant modulus (CM) criterion can equalize an FIR MIMO channel that is irreducible and column-reduced. We show in this paper that the CM property of signals can be exploited to construct a zero-forcing equalizer for a non-irreducible and non-column-reduced channel. We also give a lower bound for the order of the equalizer. Simulation examples demonstrate the proposed result.